Chapter 016

Local Anesthetics

John A. Yagiela

CITED REFERENCES

  1. Adriani J, Naraghi M: The pharmacologic principles of regional pain relief. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 17:223-242, 1977. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Åkerman B: Effects of felypressin (Octopressin) on the acute toxicity of local anesthetics. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 27:318-330, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Aldrete JA, Narang R, Sada T, et al: Reverse carotid blood flow—a possible explanation for some reactions to local anesthetics. J Am Dent Assoc 94:1142-1145, 1977. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Altura BM, Altura BT: Effects of local anesthetics, antihistamines, and glucocorticoids on peripheral blood flow and vascular smooth muscle. Anesthesiology 41:197-214, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Armstrong CM: Na channel inactivation from open and closed states. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:17991-17996, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Armstrong PJ, Morrison LM, Noble D, et al: Effects of I.V. lignocaine on psychological performance and subjective state in healthy volunteers. Br J Anaesth 67:532-538, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Arora S, Aldrete JA: Investigation of possible allergy to local anesthetic drugs: correlation of intradermal with intramuscular injections. Anesthesiol Rev 3:13-16, 1976.
  8. Axelsson S, Isacsson G: The efficacy of ropivacaine as a dental local anaesthetic. Swed Dent J 28:85-91, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Bax NDS, Tucker GT, Lennard MS, et al: The impairment of lignocaine clearance by propranolol—major contribution from enzyme inhibition. Br J Clin Pharmacol 19:597-603, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Bernards CM, Artu AA: Hexamethonium and midazolam terminate dysrhythmias and hypertension caused by intracerebroventricular bupivacaine in rabbits. Anesthesiology 74:89-96, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Berquist HC: The danger of mepivacaine 3% toxicity in children. J Calif Dent Assoc 3:13, 1975.
  12. Blair MR: Cardiovascular pharmacology of local anesthetics. Br J Anaesth 47:247-252, 1975. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Boakes AJ, Laurence DR, Teoh PC, et al: Interactions between sympathomimetic amines and antidepressant agents in man. BMJ 1:311-315, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Bokesch PM, Post C, Strichartz G: Structure-activity relationship of lidocaine homologs producing tonic and frequency-dependent impulse blockade in nerve. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 237:773-781, 1986.
  15. Bokesch PM, Raymond SA, Strichartz G: Dependence of lidocaine potency on pH and PCO2. Anesth Analg 66:9-17, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Borg T, Modig J: Potential anti-thrombotic effects of local anaesthetics due to their inhibition of platelet aggregation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 29:739-742, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Brown G, Ward NL: Prilocaine and lignocaine plus adrenaline. Br Dent J 126:557-562, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Butterworth JF IV, Strichartz GR: Molecular mechanisms of local anesthesia: a review. Anesthesiology 72:711-734, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Catchlove RFH: Potentiation of two different local anaesthetics by carbon dioxide. Br J Anaesth 45:471-474, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Catterall WA: From ionic currents to molecular mechanisms: the structure and function of voltage-gated sodium channels. Neuron 26:13-25, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Catterall WA: Structure and function of voltage-sensitive ion channels. Science 242:50-61, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Chaney MA, Kerby R, Reader A, et al: An evaluation of lidocaine hydrocarbonate compared with lidocaine hydrochloride for inferior alveolar nerve block. Anesth Prog 38:212-216, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Chin KL, Yagiela JA, Quinn CL, et al: Serum mepivacaine concentrations after intraoral injection in young children. J Calif Dent Assoc 31:757-764, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Clarkson CW, Hondeghem LM: Mechanism for bupivacaine depression of cardiac conduction: fast block of sodium channels during the action potential with slow recovery from block during diastole. Anesthesiology 62:396-405, 1985.
  25. Cotton BR, Henderson HP, Achola KJ, et al: Changes in plasma catecholamine concentrations following infiltration with large volumes of local anaesthetic solution containing adrenaline. Br J Anaesth 58:593-597, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Covino BG: Local anesthesia. N Engl J Med 286:975-983, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  27. Covino BG, Vassallo HG: Local anesthetics—mechanisms of action and clinical use, New York, 1976, Grune & Stratton.
  28. Cryer PE: Physiology and pathophysiology of the human sympathoadrenal neuroendocrine system. N Engl J Med 303:436-444, 1980. PUBMED Abstract
  29. de Jong RH, Heavner JE: Local anesthetic seizure prevention: diazepam versus pentobarbital. Anesthesiology 36:449-457, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  30. deShazo RD, Nelson HS: An approach to the patient with a history of local anesthetic hypersensitivity: experience with 90 patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 63:387-394, 1979. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Donaldson D, Meechan JG: A comparison of the effects of EMLA cream and topical 5% lidocaine on discomfort during gingival probing. Anesth Prog 42:7-10, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Eldridge DJ, Rood JP: A double-blind trial of 5 per cent lignocaine. Br Dent J 142:129-130, 1977. PUBMED Abstract
  33. El-Sharrawy E, Yagiela JA: Anesthetic efficacy of different ropivacaine concentrations for inferior alveolar nerve block. Anesth Prog 53:3-7, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  34. Fink BR: Mechanisms of differential axial blockade in epidural and subarachnoid anesthesia. Anesthesiology 70:851-858, 1989. PUBMED Abstract
  35. Franz DN, Perry RS: Mechanisms for differential block among single myelinated and nonmyelinated axons by procaine. J Physiol (London) 236:193-210, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  36. Friskopp J, Nilsson M, Isacsson G: The anesthetic onset and duration of a new lidocaine/prilocaine gel intra-pocket anesthetic (Oraqix) for periodontal scaling/root planing. J Clin Periodontol 28:453-458, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  37. Garfield JM, Gugino L: Central effects of local anesthetic agents. In Strichartz GR, editor: Local anesthetics. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, vol 81, Berlin, 1987, Springer-Verlag.
  38. Goodson JM, Moore PA: Life-threatening reactions after pedodontic sedation: an assessment of narcotic, local anesthetic, and antiemetic drug interaction. J Am Dent Assoc 107:239-245, 1983. PUBMED Abstract
  39. Haas DA, Harper DG, Saso MA, et al: Lack of differential effect by Ultracaine (articaine) and Citanest (prilocaine) in infiltration anesthesia. J Can Dent Assoc 57:217-223, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  40. Haas DA, Lennon D: A 21 year retrospective study of reports of paresthesia following local anesthetic administration. J Can Dent Assoc 61:319-320, 323-326, 329-330, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  41. Haase A, Reader A, Nusstein J, et al: Comparing anesthetic efficacy of articaine versus lidocaine as a supplemental buccal infiltration of the mandibular first molar after an inferior alveolar nerve block. J Am Dent Assoc 139:1228-1235, 2008.PUBMED Abstract
  42. Häfner HM, Röcken M, Breuninger H: Epinephrine-supplemented local anesthetics for ear and nose surgery: clinical use without complications in more than 10,000 surgical procedures. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 3:195-199, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  43. Hersh EV, Helpin ML, Evans OB: Local anesthetic mortality: report of case. ASDC J Dent Child 58:489-491, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  44. Hille B: Local anesthetics: hydrophilic and hydrophobic pathways for the drug-receptor reaction. J Gen Physiol 69:497-515, 1977. PUBMED Abstract
  45. Jackson JE, Bentley JB, Glass SJ, et al: Effects of histamine-2 receptor blockade on lidocaine kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 37:544-548, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  46. Johnson ME, Saenz JA, DaSilva AD, et al: Effect of local anesthetic on neuronal cytoplasmic calcium and plasma membrane lysis (necrosis) in a cell culture model. Anesthesiology 97:1466-1477, 2002.
  47. Jorfeldt L, Lewis DH, Löfström JB, et al: Lung uptake of lidocaine in healthy volunteers. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 23:567-574, 1979. PUBMED Abstract
  48. Jorfeldt L, Löfström B, Pernow B, et al: The effect of local anaesthetics on the central circulation and respiration in man and dog. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 12:153-169, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  49. Kindler CH, Paul M, Zou H, et al: Amide local anesthetics potently inhibit the human tandem pore domain background K+ channel TASK-2 (KCNK5). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 306:84-92, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  50. Kozody R, Ready LB, Barsa JE, et al: Dose requirement of local anaesthetic to produce grand mal seizure during stellate ganglion block. Can Anaesth Soc J 29:489-491, 1982. PUBMED Abstract
  51. Kravitz ND: The use of compound topical anesthetics: a review. J Am Dent Assoc 138:1333-1339, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  52. Lee Y, Lee C-H, Oh U: Painful channels in sensory neurons. Mol Cells 20:315-324, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  53. Magnusson I, Jeffcoat MK, Donaldson D, et al: Quantification and analysis of pain in nonsurgical scaling and/or root planing. J Am Dent Assoc 135:1747-1754, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  54. Malamed SF, Gagnon S, Leblanc D: Efficacy of articaine: a new amide local anesthetic. J Am Dent Assoc 131:635-642, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  55. Martin R, Lamarche Y, Tétreault L: Effects of carbon dioxide and epinephrine on serum levels of lidocaine after epidural anaesthesia. Can Anaesth Soc J 28:224-227, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  56. McEwen DP, Meadows LS, Chen C, et al: Sodium channel β1 subunit-mediated modulation of Nav1.2 currents and cell surface density is dependent on interactions with contactin and ankyrin. J Biol Chem 279:16044-16049, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  57. McNulty MM, Edgerton GB, Shah RD, et al: Charge at the lidocaine binding site residue Phe-1759 affects permeation in human cardiac voltage-gated sodium channels. J Physiol 581(Pt 2):741-755, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  58. Michalowicz BS, DiAngelis AJ, Novak MJ, et al: Examining the safety of dental treatment in pregnant women. J Am Dent Assoc 139:685-695, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  59. Mio Y, Fukuda N, Kusakari Y, et al: Bupivacaine attenuates contractility by decreasing sensitivity of myofilaments to Ca2+ in rat ventricular muscle. Anesthesiology 97:1168-1177, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  60. Mohan PP, Cherian PT: Epinephrine in digital nerve block. Emerg Med J 24:789-790, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  61. Munson ES, Wagman IH: Diazepam treatment of local anesthetic-induced seizures. Anesthesiology 37:523-528, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  62. Muroi Y, Chanda B: Local anesthetics disrupt energetic coupling between the voltage-sensing segments of a sodium channel. Anesth Analg 105:1657-1664, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  63. Neumcke B, Schwarz W, St. Adampfli R: Block of Na channels in the membrane of myelinated nerve by benzocaine. Pflügers Arch 390:230-236, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  64. Orlando R, Piccoli P, De Martin S, et al: Effect of the CYP3A4 inhibitor erythromycin on the pharmacokinetics of lignocaine and its pharmacologically active metabolites in subjects with normal and impaired liver function. Br J Clin Pharmacol 55:86-93, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  65. Persson G: General side effects of local dental anaesthesia. Acta Odontol Scand Suppl 53:1-140, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  66. Prenner BM, Stevens JJ: Anaphylaxis after ingestion of sodium bisulfite. Ann Allergy 37:180-182, 1976. PUBMED Abstract
  67. Punnia-Moorthy A: Buffering capacity of normal and inflamed tissues following the injection of local anaesthetic solutions. Br J Anaesth 61:154-159, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  68. Ragsdale DS, McPhee JC, Scheuer T, et al: Molecular determinants of state-dependent block of Na+ channels by local anesthetics. Science 265:1724-1728, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  69. Raymond SA, Steffensen SC, Gugino LD, et al: The role of length of nerve exposed to local anesthetics in impulse blocking action. Anesth Analg 68:563-570, 1989. PUBMED Abstract
  70. Roberts RK, Heath CA, Johnson RF, et al: Effect of H2-receptor antagonists on steady-state extraction of indocyanine green and lidocaine by the perfused rat liver. J Lab Clin Med 107:112-117, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  71. Robertson D, Nusstein J, Reader A, et al: The anesthetic efficacy of articaine in buccal infiltration of mandibular posterior teeth. J Am Dent Assoc 138:104-1112, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  72. Schwartz HJ, Sher TH: Bisulfite sensitivity manifesting as allergy to local dental anesthesia. J Allergy Clin Immunol 75:525-527, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  73. Scurlock JE, Meymaris E, Gregus J: The clinical character of local anesthetics: a function of frequency-dependent conduction block. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 22:601-608, 1978. PUBMED Abstract
  74. Seldin HM: Survey of anesthetic fatalities in oral surgery and a review of the etiological factors in anesthetic deaths. J Am Dent Soc Anesthesiol 5:5-12, 1958. PUBMED Abstract
  75. Seldin HM, Recant BS: The safety of anesthesia in the dental office. J Oral Surg 13:199-208, 1955. PUBMED Abstract
  76. Seo N, Oshima E, Stevens J, et al: The tetraphasic action of lidocaine on CNS electrical activity and behavior in cats. Anesthesiology 57:451-457, 1982. PUBMED Abstract
  77. Sheets MF, Hanck DA: Outward stabilization of the S4 segments in domains III and IV enhances lidocaine block of sodium channels. J Physiol 582(Pt 2):317-334, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  78. Simon MA, Vree TB, Gielen MJ, et al: Similar motor block effects with different disposition kinetics between lidocaine and (+ or -) articaine in patients undergoing axillary brachial plexus block during day case surgery. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 37:598-607, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  79. Sinclair CJ, Scott DB: Comparison of bupivacaine and etidocaine in extradural blockade. Br J Anaesth 56:147-153, 1984. PUBMED Abstract
  80. Smith RF, Wharton GG, Kurtz SL, et al: Behavioral effects of mid-pregnancy administration of lidocaine and mepivacaine in the rat. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 8:61-68, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  81. Special Committee of the New York Heart Association, Inc: Use of epinephrine in connection with procaine in dental procedures. J Am Dent Assoc 50:108, 1955. PUBMED Abstract
  82. Strong JM, Parker M, Atkinson AJ: Identification of glycinexylidide in patients treated with intravenous lidocaine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 14:67-72, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  83. Svensson P, Petersen JK: Anesthetic effect of EMLA occluded with orahesive oral bandages on oral mucosa: a placebo-controlled study. Anesth Prog 39:79-82, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  84. Taheri S, Cogswell LP III, Gent A, et al: Hydrophobic and ionic factors in the binding of local anesthetics to the major variant of human α1-acid glycoprotein. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304:71-80, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  85. Troullos ES, Goldstein DS, Hargreaves KM, et al: Plasma epinephrine levels and cardiovascular response to high administered doses of epinephrine contained in local anesthesia. Anesth Prog 34:10-13, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  86. Trudell JR: A unitary theory of anesthesia based on lateral phase separations in nerve membranes. Anesthesiology 46:5-10, 1977. PUBMED Abstract
  87. Volpi M, Sha’afi RI, Epstein PM, et al: Local anesthetics, mepacrine, and propranolol are antagonists of calmodulin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 78:795-799, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  88. Wang GK: Binding affinity and stereoselectivity of local anesthetics in single batrachotoxin-activated Na+ channels. J Gen Physiol 96:1105-1127, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  89. Wang JS, Backman JT, Taavitsainen P, et al: Involvement of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in lidocaine N-deethylation and 3-hydroxylation in humans. Drug Metab Dispos 28:959-965, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  90. Wingard DW, Bobko S: Failure of lidocaine to trigger porcine malignant hyperthermia. Anesth Analg 58:99-103, 1979. PUBMED Abstract
  91. Yagiela JA: Intravascular lidocaine toxicity: influence of epinephrine and route of administration. Anesth Prog 32:57-61, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  92. Yagiela JA: Vasoconstrictors: their role in local anesthetic toxicity. J Jpn Dent Soc Anesthesiol 21:261-278, 1993.
  93. Yagiela JA, Benoit PW, Buoncristiani RD, et al: Comparison of myotoxic effects of lidocaine with epinephrine in rats and humans. Anesth Analg 60:471-480, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  94. Yarov-Yarovoy V, McPhee JC, Idsvoog D, et al: Roles of amino acid residues in transmembrane segments IS6 and IIS6 of the Na+ channel a subunit in voltage-dependent gating and drug block. J Biol Chem 277:35393-35401, 2002. PUBMED Abstract

GENERAL REFERENCES

  1. Berde CB, Strichartz GR: Local anesthetics. In Miller RD, editor: Miller’s anesthesia, ed 6, Philadelphia, 2005, Churchill Livingstone.
  2. Cousins MJ, Bridenbaugh PO, Carr DB, et al, editors: Cousins and Bridenbaugh’s neural blockade in clinical anesthesia and pain medicine, ed 4, Philadelphia, 2008, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  3. Covino BG, Vassallo HG: Local anesthetics—mechanisms of action and clinical use, New York, 1976, Grune & Stratton.
  4. Liu SS, Joseph RS Jr: Local anesthetics. In Barash PG, Cullen BF, Stoelting RK, editors: Clinical anesthesia, ed 5, Philadelphia, 2006, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  5. Strichartz GR, editor: Local anesthetics. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, vol 81, Berlin, 1987, Springer-Verlag.